The colonial economy revolved around mining, agriculture, and trade. Silver extracted from
mines such as those in Zacatecas became a cornerstone of Spain’s global wealth. Colonial cities like Mexico City, built atop the ruins of Tenochtitlán, developed grand cathedrals, universities, and administrative centers that reflected Spanish architectural styles infused with local craftsmanship.By the early nineteenth century, Enlightenment ideas and dissatisfaction with colonial rule inspired independence movements. In 1810, Miguel Hidalgo issued the Grito de Dolores, calling for rebellion against Spanish authority. After a protracted struggle, Mexico achieved independence in 1821. However, the young nation faced political instability, territorial conflicts, and economic challenges.
The nineteenth century brought further transformation. The Mexican-American War resulted in significant territorial loss to the United States in 1848. Internal divisions between liberals and conservatives shaped debates over church influence, land reform, and governance. Benito Juárez, an Indigenous Zapotec leader, emerged as a key figure in defending republican principles and resisting foreign intervention. French forces briefly installed Emperor Maximilian I, but the republic was ultimately restored.
The long presidency of Porfirio Díaz from 1876 to 1911 ushered in modernization and infrastructure development but also deepened social inequality. Land concentration and labor exploitation fueled unrest that culminated in the Mexican Revolution of 1910. Revolutionary leaders such as Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa fought for land reform and social justice. The revolution reshaped Mexico’s political landscape, leading to the 1917 Constitution, which enshrined labor rights and land redistribution. shutdown123